This article describes the outline of a possible project that the Small Grants Programme - Global Environment Facility is attempting to establish and trial. If you are interested in realizing a similar initiative in your mountain community, we would be delighted to discuss the possibility with you.

Description of the problem

The development of information technology has enabled the country's population to receive warnings from the Ministry of Emergency Situations (MChS) and the environmental monitoring service regarding dangerous natural phenomena. These can include extremely high or low air temperatures, solar activity, severe precipitation, avalanches, mudflows and landslides. Unlike previous years, 2013 was characterized by a high number of occasions where villages in mountainous and hilly regions were in danger. Furthermore, while such events had previously occurred in the seasons of winter and spring, as might be expected, in 2013 these events occurred in the summer.

Mudflows are streams of dirt and stones that flow downhill at great speeds and with incredible destructive force. These flows not only harm the country’s economy by causing significant material damage – destroying various communication links, buildings, structures, the blockage of water storage facilities and irrigation and drainage networks – but also claim the lives of livestock and even human beings.

The material damage caused by mudflows is enormous, but the direct damage they cause is not limited to this. As the topsoil, the most fertile layer, is swept off hillsides, the soil is made significantly less fertile which leads to a decrease in these areas’ yield. The loss of this fertile layer gradually leads to the loss of biodiversity, future aridity and consequently the loss of ecological productivity. This last aspect has a direct impact on the food security of the country. These occurrences thus render the ecological and economic conditions of districts affected by mudflows markedly worse, and these conditions become problematic. In the long run, it is impossible for this not to have a negative impact on the social environment of local communities. Further consequences of mudflows spread from mountainous districts, where they arise, to valleys. Mudflows that flow down hills remove an enormous amount of water which is impossible to use during the long, dry growing season, when the need for water is at its greatest. Furthermore, this moisture is accompanied by sediment which silts up water storage facilities – canals and rivers – reducing their capacity and absorbency and putting them out of service significantly earlier than planned.

A landslide in the surroundings of mountain settlements in Tashkent province

But even this is not the principal damage wrought by mudflows. Uzbekistan is an agrarian/industrial country. A large part of its crop cultivation depends on irrigated land – in conditions like those in Uzbekistan, cultivating plants without irrigation would be practically impossible. Meanwhile, only 9% of the country's river water arises within its borders. The rest of the water arises in neighboring countries, principally in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. It makes sense that we are essentially unable to regulate the water that rises in other countries. At the same time, ongoing climate change is causing ever more aridity in Uzbekistan, meaning that there is an even greater need for fresh water, principally to irrigate fields, but also for industry and for the population.

Therefore it is ever more important to us to pay close attention to the water that arises in our own country. The amount of water that flows together with mudflows can be considered lost for agriculture.

Deforestation is the principal cause of mudflows, as this leads to the loss of the soil’s plant cover. The once-rich plant covering of the mountainous and foothill regions of Central Asia has undergone significant reduction, fragmentation, degradation and depletion. Forested areas in the mountainous regions of the country, according to different assessments, now amount to less than 1.5-2%.

Man and his economic activities constitute the main reason for the loss of plant cover in the mountainous regions of the country.^[1] As an example, pistachios and juniper trees were enormously depleted due to fuel requirements related to the development of a local metallurgical plant, and so that trees for timber could be planted and felled. The ploughing of arable land in the dry lands of the foothills also led to the destruction of large areas of forest. The development of distant-pasture livestock-raising and the unregulated grazing of ever-increasing quantities of livestock^[2] led to the depletion and degradation of not only natural mountain pastures but also of tree-covered land due to the trampling and destruction of the undergrowth, jeopardizing the natural renewal of the tree cover.An example of the destruction of hillside plant cover by grazing livestock

Deforestation and the destruction of grass cover on hillsides deprives the soil of the protection of the trees, the ground layer and turf. The top layer of soil remains basically exposed, unable to absorb precipitation and take it underground. The unregulated grazing of livestock has an ever greater effect on the structure of the topsoil and loosens it, making it liable to be washed away even by not particularly intense precipitation.

The reason for mudflows might also reside in another unreflective human activity undertaken in mountainous regions (ploughing, road-construction, etc). If no action is taken to preserve hillside plant cover, then after the topsoil has been washed away, gullies will form, something which is even more complex to counteract.

Human activities that are destroying the plant cover of hillside soils are aggravated by the damaging effects of climate change. According to climatologists at the environmental monitoring service, the imbalance of climatic systems constitutes one form of climate change. Such imbalances in turn increase the risk of natural disasters occurring due to the loss of plant cover. Predicted climatic phenomena include:

- An increased number of days with severe precipitation and more changeable precipitation patterns, which will also contribute to the washing away of the topsoil and the formation of mudflows;

- More frequent droughts and longer hot and dry periods, which will also hinder the regeneration of topsoil;

Thus an increasing population, human activity and climate change are the principal reasons for the significant degradation of plant cover, a natural component of mountainous landscapes and one that guaranteed their stable existence. The degradation of plant cover significantly increases the risk of an increase in mudflows and landslides. We must therefore be prepared to face up to an increased risk of mudflows.

The most fertile, top layer of soil on hillsides, once stripped of its plant cover, is degraded in the following way:

soil has certain properties, such as draining water. The soil allows water that has fallen on it as precipitation to flow through itself, and retains a certain amount of water as groundwater. The drainage of water depends on the composition of the soil, its structure, the presence of humus and many other factors. The more the soil is degraded, the less water it will absorb, and vice versa. Furthermore, the more intense the precipitation, the longer it falls for and the steeper the slope on which it falls, the less of this precipitation will be absorbed by the soil. Water that has not been absorbed forms surface runoff. The less water is absorbed by the soil, the more will be available to form surface runoff. It is surface runoff and sediment made up of soil particles that is the main component of mud flows.

A solution to the problem

Preventing mudflows is cheaper than cleaning up the damage they cause. Furthermore, this method of counteracting mudflows can also bring potential benefits. It is possible to prevent the formation of mudflows by preserving and regenerating the plant cover.

It has been shown by both international and domestic forestry practices that preserving forest cover and the reforestation of hillsides is a crucial factor in stabilizing mountain landscapes and also in producing a significant decrease and even elimination of mudflows:

on hillsides that are covered by forest, the tree cover itself retains a large amount of precipitation, thereby reducing its quantity and intensity, a process that is also helped by needles, leaves and other plant remains under the trees that form a so-called litter layer: a layer sitting on top of the soil made of organic plant matter which is able to absorb a large amount of moisture. Dissolved particles of this litter layer, mixed with earth, not only enrich the earth with humus but also improve the physical/mechanical properties of the top layer of soil, increasing its porosity and structure, which leads to a significant increase in its ability to filter water through the soil. Furthermore, the litter layer provides food for soil-dwelling animals such as earthworms and rodents which, by means of their movements through the soil, also significantly improve the speed at which moisture can be absorbed;

exactly the same role is played by a living layer on top of the soil made up of grassy plants, which at times create quite a thick turf, thereby also contributing to the storage and absorption of water.

Soils with developed forest and grass plant layers are able to absorb practically all precipitation that falls on them, thus transforming surface runoff into underground runoff. In these circumstances, there is a marked increase in the depth to which the soil is soaked, corresponding to the increased amount of water stored in the soil. Some of this moisture might be used during the plant-growing season, increasing the soil's productivity due to its improved capacity to provide water. However, a significant amount will leak out from the soil in different ways during the summer months, like water leaking from a sponge, and end up in the hydrographical network, maintaining the flows of mountain rivers. In this case, surface water, and also the degradation of hillside soils, substantially decreases or stops entirely.

However, as noted above, population growth and its resulting requirements – principally the grazing of livestock and the felling of trees – are the main cause of the destruction of forests and the degradation of hillside soils. Therefore, simple reforestation in the mountains cannot solve the problem of mudflows, since this problem is essentially caused by humans. This means that problems must be solved by addressing social needs and engineering and forest-related challenges.

In worldwide science and practice in the domain of transforming surface runoff into underground runoff in hilly areas and combating mudflows, we find the term “watershed management”. This includes a range of measures for the sustainable management of forested areas, pastures and other categories of land, including agricultural activity in hilly areas. In this regard it is important to understand that a mountain catchment area consists of small watersheds, each of which demands its own particular procedures. A small watershed is the name given to a mountain formation bounded by drainage divides made up of two abutting ridges with their own draining depressions. That is, it is a territory bounded by drainage divides from which surface runoff and underground runoff flows into a given river or watercourse.

If the problem were to be approached in a systematic way, then watershed management ought to consist of interconnected components:

a) creation of forest on hillsides vulnerable to mudflows;

b) management of pastures;

c) social support measures;

d) creation of integrated infrastructure;

e) engineered structures to divert mudflows into river channels;

We will focus on the three initial and most important components.

a) creation of forest on hillsides vulnerable to mudflows

The most important thing to prevent mudflows is the presence of as rich as possible plant cover on hillsides. For this, it is necessary to counteract the erosion of forested areas around small watersheds - in water catchment zones in the forest belt around the catchment area, particularly in its higher and middle sections.

Growing forest, particularly in arid conditions, is a long-term undertaking that demands a thorough approach and special measures in connection with the accumulation of moisture in the soil in the early stages of the trees’ life so as to improve the survival rate of the forest cultures and to permit their successful growth. However, rapid improvements cannot be expected, even with cultures with a good survival rate and good signs of growth: it takes a long time to create a forest environment.

But time waits for no man and we have to obtain results from our actions as quickly as possible. One thing that can help to obtain improvements is creating terraces, as a way of preparing the soil for the subsequent planting of protective plantations. A system of terraces is created in such a way so as to completely trap surface runoff. In order to do this, it is essential to guarantee the absorptive properties of the terraces and their density in relation to the unique properties of the location. These two attributes depend on the quantity of precipitation falling on a particular location, how intense it is, the steepness of the slope and certain other criteria. The creation of a system of terraces on slopes steeper than 13-15 degrees guarantees not only that surface runoff will be trapped, but also that it will be transformed initially into underground runoff and, consequently, will provide a water supply in places where planting is to be carried out, which will guarantee the establishment of the new cultures in the arid conditions of Central Asia.

In slopes of this steepness, and also on those inaccessible by tractor, and on even steeper slopes, the soil for the planting of forest cultures is prepared in small areas with opposing slopes which are also intended to absorb water.

On less steep slopes soil is prepared by ploughing in rows, or by ploughing horizontal terraces.

After construction is complete, it is time to start planting the forest. The long-term plan foresees the forest, when the terraces will possibly silt up, that will guarantee that all of the surface runoff is trapped and is transformed into underground runoff. It is crucial to create a forest environment with these growing trees, and above all the creation of a litter layer, a powerful root system and the development of soil-dwelling plants and animals. All of this will guarantee that the topsoil will be protected and regenerated.

The selection of forest cultures depends on the altitude, on the orientation of the hillside in relation to the sun, on the steepness of the slope, on the biological characteristics of the forest species, and other factors.

b) management of pastures

The creation of forests on hillsides in order to regenerate plant cover (grass, shrubs and trees) presupposes that livestock be banned from grazing in order to avoid damage to the young plants in the area in question. A range of examples has clearly shown how a ban on grazing on hillsides led to the rapid regeneration of grasses, first of all, and then of forested areas. Mudflows stopped after 1-2 years. If we wish to limit mudflows, it is crucial to limit the grazing of livestock so that plants can recover. The grazing of livestock can resume after the creation of forest, albeit in a strictly controlled manner.

A grassland degradation made by a livestock

However, limiting grazing leads to the local population losing profits arising from pastures, which of course provokes the displeasure of animal owners. In connection with this, the question of the sustainable and profitable use and management of the remaining pastures becomes pressing.

In order to mitigate this, certain measures must be introduced:

- outreach and the implementation of pasture rotation;

- introduction, at the very least partial introduction, of keeping livestock in barns;

- less productive animals must be replaced with purebred livestock, thus permitting a significant reduction in the number of animals kept by local residents without leading to a loss in their production levels;

- productive feed plantations on irrigated land must be created and a cluster of measures implemented to improve the productivity of current pastures.

It should be noted that some feed can be obtained from forested areas.

But the most important factor in limiting the risk of mudflows will be the application of strict controls on impermissible livestock in the forested areas under regeneration and subsequently the strict enforcement of rules regarding livestock on hillsides. If this monitoring were to be carried out by the MChS, alone or together with the inspection division of the state department for natural monitoring, the risk of mudflows could be effectively reduced.

It is impossible to regenerate grassy vegetation on the highest elevations, where forests cannot be regenerated, without strict enforcement of livestock rules.

c) social support measures

In order to avoid the future illegal felling of growing trees, it is important to establish mechanisms to make it beneficial to local residents to preserve and regenerate forested areas. This can be achieved in several ways.

The first way, which is directly connected to the challenge at hand – preventing mudflows – consists of creating a business linked to growing trees. This can be achieved by instituting certain practices and frameworks.

The first mechanism is to assign responsibility for the creation of forested areas to the relevant population group. It is necessary to lease out land on hillsides in order to create forests, and to encourage current lessees to create forested areas. In order to do this, forested areas must bring a direct benefit to the lessee. Forest industry can be profitable for lessees by means of various management practices. A high level of support will be necessary here from forestry workers, who must be ready to present and teach farmers such practices.

In many cases, practices will depend on many factors, but possible versions include:

- creation of fruit-tree orchards in accessible high-altitude regions;

- creation of pistachio and almond plantations on sites with a southern exposure and with little water flow;

- creation of walnut plantations on slopes with a northern exposure;

- creation of commercial timber and firewood plantations.

There are many technologies that would allow lessees to make the maximum amount of profit from a well-managed forested area. Furthermore, it is essential to provide support so as to enable the smooth and profitable sale of the products of the planted forested area.

However, it is also important to regenerate hillside vegetation, both trees and grass, at high altitudes that do not allow direct profits to be made from trees. Putting the responsibility on lessees in accordance with the amount of irrigated land given to them lower in the valley is one possible way to regenerate forest cover at such high altitudes. One similar variant was trialled in Samarkand Province, where in return for being responsible for regenerating one hectare of forest according to established standards, the lessee was given 0.25 hectares of irrigated land. It is impossible to institute such a scheme without the firm desire of local authorities to do so.

It is also impossible to prevent trees being felled without an additional set of measures to improve everyday life among the local population. This means, primarily, guaranteeing the population that they will get what they chop down trees for - namely, energy. The main reason trees are felled is to provide energy to prepare food and heat homes. It is possible to take a range of measures to satisfy these energy needs:

- introduce measures to increase energy efficiency: distribute simple home insulation technology and energy-saving stoves to prepare food and heat homes;

- introduce alternative heat sources: set up briquette presses for producing heating briquettes, install simple solar cells to heat water for everyday use, distribute simple biogas equipment for individual household use.

Proposed project activities

At the present time, confirmations of the effectiveness of lowering the risk of mudflows by regenerating plant cover – watershed management – is entirely based on scientific foundations and trials that have been carried out in peacetime. In Uzbekistan, there has been no demonstration of the effectiveness of this work in watershed management.

In order to demonstrate the effectiveness of combating the formation of mudflows by improving watershed management, it is essential to:

1. Select watersheds in locations where mudflows are currently frequent;

2. Develop and implement measures for each location according to the aforementioned points: regeneration of forests, regulation of use of pastures, measures to improve social and living conditions, etc.

3. Carry out an analysis of the effectiveness of the measures, including an analysis of the lower risk of mudflows, as well as an economic analysis - how much damage is done by mudflows, how much was spent to combat them or repair the damage, and how much it was necessary to spend in order to counteract mudflows by means of watershed management and the benefits of this approach;

4. Prepare recommendations for the MChS on the possible extension of this experiment to other areas of the country in danger of mudflows.

The success of these efforts depends on the motivation of local populations to stop mudflows, and the involvement and total support of local authorities in this work. The fundamental idea of this project is to move responsibility and spending on the regeneration of plant cover away from the state and its financial resources and onto potential lessees of hillside areas, in exchange for the benefit that they receive. State authorities must take upon themselves an accompanying, coordinating and supervisory role.

It is vital to note that watershed management to combat mudflows is complex. The success of one element depends on the successful implementation of the others. For example, the regeneration of forest cover is impossible without the proper management of pastures, but this in turn is impossible without measures to lessen the impact of traditional livestock-raising. At the same time, the lack of measures to meet energy needs will increase the risk that trees will be felled, rendering all the efforts to restore forested areas less effective, or entirely ineffective.

Thus the neglect or insufficient implementation of any of the measures in the aforementioned list of systemic measures for sustainable watershed management can jeopardize the effectiveness of the entire system. It is therefore logical that these efforts depend on coordinating the actions of specialists from many state agencies, professions, and local residents. In our country, there has been no previous instance of such a multi-functional, interdisciplinary, environmental project with a clear social orientation being executed. However, rapidly-changing natural and social conditions emphatically demand urgent action.

If this idea has interested you, please contact the office of the Small Grants Programme of the Global Environment Facility at the following address:

41/3 Miradabskaya St, 10015 Tashkent, www.sgp.uz

Telephone.: +998 (71) 120 34 62, +998 (93) 381 00 82

e-mail: alexey.volkov@undp.org

[1] At the end of 1913, the population of Uzbekistan within its present-day borders was 4.33 million people. By the end of 2013 the population exceeded 30 million people.

[2] There were 1.4 million head of cattle in Uzbekistan in 1916 and 4.3 million sheep and goats; in 2008 there were more than 8 million head of cattle and 13.6 million sheep and goats